There is evidence for benefits to these other processes. including language development, learning to read language text, certain types of reasoning, and creativity. There is also evi- dence for benefits in personality adjustment and social devel-’ opment, evident in setting and reaching challenging goals, group interactions and cooperation in ensemble playing, etc. [“Music and Cognitive Achievement in Children”, MRN. Fall 1994,1(2): “The Nonmusical Outcomes of Music Education” MRN, Fall 1995, 11(2); “Creating Creativity With Music”. MRN. Spring 1998. V (2); “Musical Compositions by School- children”, MRN, Fall 1998. V (3)1. The strongest and most re- liable benefits have been reported for active involvement in music. However, behavior such as consumer purchasing, which is less cognitive or non-cognitive depending on ones point of view, can he controlled quite a hit by background music [“ El- evator Music:’ More Than It Seems”, MRN. Fall 1995 11(2)].

How can music be used most effectively therapeutically?

The final question we can address in this overview concerns music therapy, broadly defined. This includes the use of music and music making to promote wellness as well as the more established field of using music in the treatment of physi- cal. behavioral and mental problems. The latter is far too ex- tensive a field to suminari7.e but a few noteworthy develop- ments can he mentioned in the space remaining.

There has been long-standing evidence that music can have powerful effects on mood and this line of inquiry is be- coining .soliditied by more systematic and controlled studies [“The Coloring of Life: Music and Mood”, MRN, Spring 1996 III (1); “Understanding Music’s Emotional Power”, MRN, Spring 1998. V (2)].

Recent years have seen a more biological approach to music therapy. In particular, measures of the effects of vari- ous musical treatments and experiences have been applied to physiological processes such as the release of stress hormones. Studies have shown that passive musical involvement can re- duce the release of stress hormones in a variety of circum- stances including some types of pre-surgical anxiety. alleviate distress in the newborn and reduce the length of hospital stays in certain cases [The Musical Hormone”. MRN. Fall 1997, IV (2)[. One important facet of this line of research is that it can provide the “missing link’S to explain how music affects wellness and health.

Perhaps the most unexpected use of music in therapy is in a highly passive and unique situation, that of comatose patients who have uncontrollable epilepsy, that is brain sei- zures even while they are unconscious. Playing classical mu- sic reduces the incidence of brain seizures [“The Powers of Music: A Treatment for Epilepsy?” MRN. Fall 1998, V (3)].

Overall, there has been considerable progress in the therapeutic and health-related areas of research. New. particu- larly biological and neurological approaches arc becoming used in addition to more traditional practices. The outlook is prom-

ising. However, perhaps because of the breadth of music thera- peutic approaches, there is not yet sufficient systematic re- search to guide all of the applications of music to health.

Conclusions

We have taken a backward look at music research. While not comprehensive, the flavor of contemporary issues and developments may he sufficient to provide a basis for looking to the future. Satchel Paige might have had the fol- lowing to say. “When I first looked over my shoulder, I saw different parts of the music research team trotting along, on their own paths. They weren’t gaining on me or much of any- thing else. At the turn of the millennium I looked again

they were going a lot faster and starting to run together. Maybe they can make it to their own Hall of Fame. I hope so.”

Of course, neither Santayana nor Paige were narrowly focused on the past or the future, rcspeciively. I beg a little author’s license to make a point, and ask that it be granted only this one time in the current millennium. Thank you.

enhancement of preschool children’s spatial-temporal reasoning. Neurological Research, 19:2—8. For a broader discussion of pos- sible transfer effects from music education to other domains of cog- nition see “Can Music Really Improve the Mind? The Question of Transfer Effects~ .“ MRN. Spring 1999, VI (2),

The goal of MuSICA Research Notes is to fill the gap between the original scientific publications and reports in the mass media in the field of’ music research.

This finding has been replicated by the original authors and also by other laboratories. However there have also been failures to rep- licate: raising the question of whether the failures reflect difference in Methods or something else. At the present time this issue has not been completely settled.

The interested reader may wish to consult the many excellent general resource books~ ~~vailahle, such as Colwell. R. (editor). (1992), Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning, a Project of the Music Educators National Conference, Schirmer Books: New

edition). Academic Press: San Diego.

“Music is the art of thinking with sounds.

— Jule.r Conibaricu

There is nothing more notable in Socrates than

that hefinind tune, when he was an old man, to

learn music and dancing, and thought it time well Spent.

— A4ichel de P4ontaigne

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