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There is increasing interest in the effects of music on the mind, an issue
best understood as transfer effects from music to other cognitive domains. A
special feature in a major music research journal recently focused on this
issue. Several workers were asked to present their perspectives. Although
many positive transfer effects have been documented, there was not unanimous
agreement. Such contrary dialogue represents a normal and healthy aspect of
science. The fact that this question is now taken very seriously is important
because it was ignored in the past.
The journal Psychology of Music is
published by the Society for Research in Psychology of Music and Music
Education. As such, it is a major outlet for new findings and ideas in music
research. In 1998 this journal hosted a published “Discussion Note”
section in which the issue of music’s mental benefits was set forth by
Professor Katie Overy of the University of Sheffield, U.K.’ She pointed out
that while there is great current interest in the benefits of music, the
topic is one of long standing. I present here one of the quotations she
provided at the beginning of her article.
“it is an acknowledged fact that, when properly carried out, class-work in
music ... has most
certainly the effect of stimulating the mental
faculties of those who take part in it, and, as a result, of improving the
standard of work in
other departments.” — MacPherson,
1922 2
The words have changed since the 1920s. “Mental faculties”
might better be understood as “cognitive processes” and “other
departments” can be read as “non-musical academic subjects”. But the
meaning is clear.
Transfer of Learning
Contemporary approaches to the improvement or facilitation
of one cognitive ability or motor skill by prior learning or practice in
another area usually refer to “transfer of learning” or simply “transfer
effects”. This type of cross-task facilitation is thought to be based on
similarities between processes that are involved in the original and the
recipient or facilitated situation. A common example in motor skill transfer
is that learning to ride a bicycle facilitates learning to skate, ski, or
other activity which requires learning to maintain balance while moving
forward.
Transfer of learning is a fundamental issue in the cognitive and brain
sciences. It has a long history and continues to be a topic in education both
for cognition and motor skills. A simple search of “transfer of learning”
in PsycInfo, the data- base of the American Psychological Association, turned
up 6919 citations. Transfer effects are not limited to motor skills but are
very well known for cognitive processes and abilities.3
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Some Views on Transfer Effects of Music
Dr. Overy provided examples of published effects but did not
attempt in her brief introduction to be comprehensive. She cited studies of
benefits of music in language and reading skills, spatial and temporal tasks,
verbal and quantitative abilities, concentration, attention, memory, and
motor coordination. Dr. Overy also asks whether such effects might be highly
specific to particular cognitive abilities or reflects facilitation of
general cognitive processing.
In the ensuing responses to Dr. Overy’s lead article, some responses
focused on possible brain mechanisms while others emphasized behavioral
findings, which I’ll focus on here. It is not my purpose to summarize each
of the points made by the respondents but rather to note some recurring
themes. 1 suggest that readers consult the responses in Psychology of Music ~
to fully appreciate this particular dialogue.
Maria Spychiger of the University of Fribourg, Switzerland asked a pointed
question.” . . .why does no one
even ask
whether maths can improve the mind? Or whether language could? Probably,
these questions are too silly or strange; every- one knows the answer is ‘yes’.”
She continues with a clear “yes” for music. Spychiger is the author of a
study which showed that children who took a curriculum which increased music
instruction at the expense of language and mathematics became better at
language and reading but no worse at mathematics than students who had spent
more time on these subjects without the additional music instruction.
Spychiger pointed out that the transfer effects between music and other
subjects are probably specific, as are many other known transfer effects,
because they are based on similarities between the two activities. Thus,
instead of speaking about “music’s” effects, one needs to determine
which aspects of music account for which transfer effects. This position
heralds the theme that the effects of music cannot be understood unless one
specifies which components of the musical experience may be relevant to
specific aspects of other tasks or areas. An example is music’s
facilitation of learning to read. This is believed to result from learning to
listen for changes in pitch in music, which is thought to promote the ability
to sound out new words.3
The same need for more detailed analysis of the bases for extra-musical
effects of music was found in the responses of other participants. For
example, Alexandra Lamont of Cambridge University emphasized the fact that
music and music lessons are very complex. She notes that not all studies show
transfer effects of music and that it is important to understand exactly what
are the critical circumstances that yield transfer. Dr. Lamont believes that
transfer effects from music to cognition have not yet been sufficiently
well-established. She adds, “... we
may hypothesize that music probably can, and further research will hopefully
establish more precisely the unresolved issues of what music ...
and where, when, how and why this might occur.”
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